Buddhist Pilgrimage Paths

The Buddha’s Instruction to Pilgrims

Buddhist pilgrimage rests on a specific textual foundation. In the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, the account of the Buddha’s final days and death, the Buddha himself identifies four places that a faithful disciple should visit with feelings of reverence: the place of his birth (Lumbini), the place of his enlightenment (Bodh Gaya), the place of his first teaching (Sarnath), and the place of his final passing (Kushinagar). “The faithful monk or nun, or devout man or woman,” the text records, “should visit these places. And anyone who dies while making the pilgrimage to these shrines with a devout heart will, at the breaking up of the body after death, be reborn in a heavenly world.”

This instruction established pilgrimage as a recognized practice within Buddhism from its earliest period. Unlike the Hajj in Islam, Buddhist pilgrimage carries no obligatory force—the Buddha recommended rather than commanded it—but the recommendation from the founder himself gave the practice unimpeachable legitimacy. The four sites mentioned in the Mahaparinibbana Sutta became known as the Four Great Places (char mahapadhana) and have drawn pilgrims for over two millennia.

The Emperor Ashoka, who ruled much of the Indian subcontinent in the third century BCE, dramatically advanced Buddhist pilgrimage by visiting the four sites and erecting pillars and stupas to mark them. Ashoka’s patronage transformed local sites into monumental destinations and established a model of royal support for pilgrimage infrastructure that would be replicated across Buddhist Asia. The pillar he erected at Lumbini, inscribed with a declaration that the Buddha was born there, remains standing and provided crucial evidence for identifying the site in the modern era.

The Four Great Sites

Bodh Gaya, in the modern Indian state of Bihar, marks the location where Siddhartha Gautama attained enlightenment beneath a pipal tree (Ficus religiosa), thereafter known as the Bodhi Tree. The Mahabodhi Temple, first constructed in the third century BCE and substantially rebuilt in later periods, stands adjacent to a descendant of the original tree. The site draws pilgrims from every Buddhist tradition—Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana—making it perhaps the most ecumenically significant location in the Buddhist world. Monasteries built by communities from Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, Tibet, Japan, and other Buddhist nations surround the temple, creating an international Buddhist precinct unique in its diversity.

Lumbini, in the Terai lowlands of modern Nepal, preserves the site of the Buddha’s birth. The Maya Devi Temple marks the precise location, and archaeological excavations have revealed structures dating to the sixth century BCE, providing some of the earliest material evidence for the historical Buddha. Ashoka’s pillar, with its inscription confirming the site’s identification, stands nearby. The development of Lumbini as a modern pilgrimage destination has involved international cooperation, with a master plan designed by the Japanese architect Kenzo Tange organizing the site into sacred, monastic, and public zones.

Sarnath, near Varanasi in northern India, is where the Buddha delivered his first teaching—the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, “Setting the Wheel of Dharma in Motion”—to five ascetics who became his first disciples. The Dhamekh Stupa, a massive cylindrical structure dating partly to the fifth century CE, marks the traditional location of this sermon. The ruins of extensive monastic complexes testify to Sarnath’s importance as a center of Buddhist learning that persisted for over a millennium before declining following Muslim conquests in the twelfth century.

Kushinagar, in eastern Uttar Pradesh, is the site of the Buddha’s parinirvana—his final passing and complete release from the cycle of rebirth. The Mahaparinirvana Temple houses a large reclining Buddha statue, and the Ramabhar Stupa marks the site of his cremation. Kushinagar remained relatively undeveloped until recent decades, when increased pilgrimage interest prompted infrastructure improvements. The site’s atmosphere of quiet contemplation contrasts with the busier environment of Bodh Gaya.

Pilgrimage Circuits in East Asia

As Buddhism spread across Asia, new pilgrimage traditions developed that adapted the practice to local geographies and cultural contexts. These circuits often involve visiting multiple sites in sequence, creating journeys that combine physical challenge with spiritual discipline.

Japan developed several major pilgrimage circuits. The Shikoku Henro, a circuit of eighty-eight temples associated with the monk Kukai (Kobo Daishi) on the island of Shikoku, represents one of the world’s great pilgrimage walks. Covering approximately 1,200 kilometers, the circuit typically requires thirty to sixty days on foot, though modern pilgrims also travel by bus or car. The pilgrim, known as a henro, wears white clothing symbolizing readiness for death and carries a walking staff understood as a representation of Kukai himself. The phrase “two pilgrims walking together” (dogyou ninin) expresses the belief that Kukai accompanies every pilgrim.

The Kumano Kodo, a network of pilgrimage routes on the Kii Peninsula, connects three grand shrines (Kumano Sanzan) that blend Shinto and Buddhist traditions. These routes, some dating to the tenth century, traverse mountainous terrain through ancient forests. The Kumano pilgrimage was undertaken by emperors and commoners alike, and medieval accounts describe streams of pilgrims so continuous they resembled “columns of ants.” UNESCO recognized the Kumano Kodo as a World Heritage Site in 2004, alongside the Camino de Santiago—the only two pilgrimage routes to hold this designation.

In China, four sacred mountains—Wutai Shan, Putuo Shan, Emei Shan, and Jiuhua Shan—each associated with a different bodhisattva, constitute a pilgrimage geography that has drawn Buddhist travelers for centuries. Wutai Shan, sacred to the bodhisattva of wisdom Manjushri, attracted pilgrims from across East Asia and Tibet, creating a meeting point for different Buddhist traditions. The mountain’s temples, some dating to the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE), preserve architectural and artistic traditions spanning more than a millennium.

Circumambulation and Merit

Circumambulation—walking around a sacred object or site—constitutes one of the most characteristic Buddhist pilgrimage practices. The kora, as it is known in Tibetan, involves walking clockwise around a mountain, stupa, or temple while reciting mantras and prayers. The practice reflects the belief that physical movement around a sacred center generates merit and deepens spiritual understanding.

Mount Kailash in western Tibet represents the most revered circumambulation destination. Sacred to Buddhists, Hindus, Jains, and practitioners of the Bon religion, Kailash has never been climbed—an unspoken agreement among traditions that the mountain’s sanctity precludes ascent. The fifty-two-kilometer circuit around its base, performed at altitudes exceeding 4,500 meters, takes most pilgrims two to three days. Some Tibetan Buddhists perform the kora by full-body prostrations, lying face-down on the ground with each step, a practice that extends the circuit to several weeks.

Stupas—reliquary mounds containing the remains or possessions of the Buddha or other revered figures—serve as circumambulation sites throughout the Buddhist world. The great stupa at Boudhanath in Kathmandu, one of the largest in Asia, draws a constant stream of pilgrims walking its circular base, spinning prayer wheels set into the surrounding wall. Swayambhunath, also in Kathmandu, crowns a hilltop with a stupa whose painted eyes gaze in four directions, surveying the valley below.

The practice of circumambulation connects Buddhist pilgrimage to broader patterns found across Asian religions. Hindu pilgrims circumambulate temples and sacred rivers. Jain pilgrims circle sacred mountains. The shared practice suggests either common origins or independent discovery of the spiritual logic of circular movement around a sacred center—a physical enactment of the relationship between the devotee and the object of devotion.

Relics and Their Veneration

The veneration of relics occupies a central place in Buddhist pilgrimage. Following the Buddha’s cremation, his remains were divided among eight claimants, and stupas were constructed to house them. This initial distribution of relics established a pattern that would multiply sacred sites across the Buddhist world as relics were further divided, transported, and enshrined.

The most famous relic is the Tooth Relic of the Buddha, housed in the Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic (Sri Dalada Maligawa) in Kandy, Sri Lanka. The annual Esala Perahera festival, one of Asia’s most elaborate religious processions, celebrates the Tooth Relic with parades of elephants, dancers, and musicians over ten nights. The relic has historically served as a symbol of political legitimacy, with rulers seeking to possess or protect it as confirmation of their right to govern.

In Thailand, Myanmar, and other Theravada countries, important relics housed in major stupas anchor pilgrimage networks. The Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon, which tradition holds contains relics of all four Buddhas of the current age, is perhaps the most visually spectacular Buddhist pilgrimage site: a gilded stupa rising ninety-eight meters above its platform, surrounded by smaller shrines and visited by thousands daily.

Modern Buddhist Pilgrimage

Contemporary Buddhist pilgrimage combines traditional devotion with modern tourism and cultural exchange. The Indian government and international Buddhist organizations have invested in developing the Four Great Sites as modern pilgrimage destinations, improving transportation, accommodation, and interpretation. The Buddhist Circuit, connecting Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, and Kushinagar, has been promoted as a travel route, though infrastructure gaps persist.

Japanese pilgrimage traditions have experienced revival alongside growing interest from international walkers. The Shikoku Henro, once primarily undertaken by Japanese Buddhists, now attracts pilgrims from around the world, drawn by the combination of spiritual practice and physical challenge. English-language guidebooks, waymarking improvements, and accommodations welcoming foreign visitors have facilitated this internationalization.

The diaspora has created new pilgrimage contexts. Buddhist temples and meditation centers in Europe, North America, and Australia serve as local pilgrimage destinations for immigrant communities and convert practitioners alike. Some Western Buddhists undertake journeys to Asian sacred sites as a form of spiritual tourism that shades into genuine pilgrimage, while others develop practices that adapt pilgrimage principles to Western s and cultural contexts.

Exploring Buddhist Pilgrimage on This Site

This site covers Buddhist pilgrimage as part of its multi-tradition approach to sacred journeys. Detailed articles examine Bodh Gaya, Lumbini, and Mount Koya as pilgrimage destinations. Route articles describe the Shikoku 88 Temples circuit, the kora around Mount Kailash, and the Kumano Kodo trails. The story of Xuanzang, the seventh-century Chinese monk whose sixteen-year journey to India and back became one of the most celebrated pilgrimages in world history, illuminates the tradition of Buddhist scholarly pilgrimage.

Background articles on the Four Sacred Sites and the theological foundations of Buddhist pilgrimage practice provide context for understanding these journeys within their religious and cultural frameworks.